Low-Dimensional Semiconductor Structures: Fundamentals and Device Applications

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Pub. Date: 2008-12-11
Publisher(s): Cambridge University Press
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Summary

Low-Dimensional Semiconductor Structures provides a seamless, atoms-to-devices introduction to the latest quantum heterostructures. It covers their fabrication, their electronic, optical and transport properties, their role in exploring physical phenomena, and their utilization in devices. The authors begin with a detailed description of the epitaxial growth of semiconductors. They then deal with the physical behaviour of electrons and phonons in low-dimensional structures. A discussion of localization effects and quantum transport phenomena is followed by coverage of the optical properties of quantum wells. They then go on to discuss non-linear optics in quantum heterostructures. The final chapters deal with semiconductor lasers, mesoscopic devices, and high-speed heterostructure devices. The book contains many exercises and comprehensive references. It is suitable as a textbook for graduate-level courses in electrical engineering and applied physics. It will also be of interest to engineers involved in the development of semiconductor devices.

Author Biography

Keith Barnham received his PhD from the University of Birmingham. He is a Professor of Physics at Imperial College and the author of over 150 technical papers. Dimitri Vvedensky received his PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is a Professor of Theoretical Condensed Matter Physics at Imperial College and the author of over 200 technical papers. He is a former Chairman of the Institute of Physics Thin Films and Surfaces Group and a Director of the Society for Engineering Science.

Table of Contents

List of contributorsp. xii
Prefacep. xiii
Epitaxial Growth of Semiconductorsp. 1
Introductionp. 1
Epitaxial Growth Techniquesp. 3
Molecular-beam Epitaxyp. 3
Vapour-phase Epitaxyp. 6
Molecular-beam Epitaxy with Heteroatomic Precursorsp. 7
Epitaxial Growth Modesp. 8
In Situ Observation of Growth Kinetics and Surface Morphologyp. 10
Reflection High-energy Electron Diffractionp. 11
Scanning Tunnelling Microscopyp. 12
Atomic Force Microscopyp. 13
Atomistic Processes during Homoepitaxyp. 16
Growth Kinetics on Vicinal GaAs(001)p. 16
Anisotropic Growth and Surface Reconstructionsp. 19
Vicinal GaAs(001)p. 19
Vicinal Si(001)p. 21
Models of Homoepitaxial Kineticsp. 23
The Theory of Burton, Cabrera and Frankp. 23
Homogeneous Rate Equationsp. 24
Multilayer Growth on Singular Surfacesp. 27
Mechanisms of Heteroepitaxial Growthp. 29
Kinetics and Equilibrium with Misfit Strainp. 29
The Frenkel-Kontorova Modelp. 30
Direct Growth of Quantum Heterostructuresp. 32
Quantum Wells and Quantum-well Superlatticesp. 33
Quantum Wire Superlatticesp. 34
Self-organized Quantum Dotsp. 37
Stranski-Krastanov Growth of InAs on GaAs(001)p. 38
Controlled Positioning of Quantum Dotsp. 40
Ge 'Hut' Clusters on Si(001)p. 40
Growth on Patterned Substratesp. 42
Selective Area Growthp. 43
Quantum Wires on 'V-Grooved' Surfacesp. 43
Stranski--Krastanov Growth on Patterned Substratesp. 44
Future Directionsp. 46
Exercisesp. 47
Referencesp. 51
Electrons in Quantum Semiconductor Structures: An Introductionp. 56
Introductionp. 56
Ideal Low-dimensional Systemsp. 57
Free Electrons in Three Dimensions: A Reviewp. 57
Ideal Two-dimensional Electron Gasp. 58
Ideal Zero- and One-dimensional Electron Gasesp. 60
Quantum Wells, Wires, and Dotsp. 61
Real Electron Gases: Single Particle Modelsp. 61
Ideal Square Wellp. 62
Some Generalizationsp. 65
Holes in Quantum Wellsp. 65
Non-parabolicityp. 65
Finite Quantum Wells and Real Systemsp. 66
Interface Effectsp. 70
Effective Mass for Parallel Transportp. 70
Effective-mass Correction to Conduction-band Discontinuitiesp. 71
Quantum Wiresp. 73
Quantum Point Contactsp. 74
Quantum Dotsp. 75
Exercisesp. 76
Referencesp. 77
Electrons in Quantum Semiconductors Structures: More Advanced Systems and Methodsp. 79
Introductionp. 79
Many-body Effectsp. 79
The Hartree Approximationp. 79
Beyond the Hartree Approximationp. 81
The 2DEG at a Heterojunction Interfacep. 82
The Ideal Heterojunctionp. 85
Some Calculational Methodsp. 86
The WKB Approximationp. 87
The 2DEG in Doping Wellsp. 90
The Delta Well (Spike Doping)p. 93
The Thomas--Fermi Approximation for Two-dimensional Systemsp. 95
The Thomas--Fermi Approximation for Heterojunctions and Delta Wellsp. 96
Quantum Wires and Quantum Dotsp. 97
Quantum Point Contacts and Quantized Conductance Stepsp. 97
A Closer Look at Quantum Dotsp. 101
The Coulomb Blockade and Single-electron Transistorsp. 104
Superlatticesp. 106
Superlattices and Multi-quantum-wellsp. 107
Miniband Properties: The WKB Approximationp. 109
Doping Superlatticesp. 112
Delta-Doped n-i-p-isp. 114
Compositional and Doping Superlatticesp. 115
Other Types of Superlatticesp. 116
Exercisesp. 118
Referencesp. 122
Phonons in Low-dimensional Semiconductor Structuresp. 123
Introductionp. 123
Phonons in Heterostructuresp. 124
Superlatticesp. 125
Mesoscopic Phonon Phenomenap. 131
Electron--Phonon Interactions in Heterostructuresp. 135
Conclusionp. 144
Exercisesp. 145
Referencesp. 147
Localization and Quantum Transportp. 149
Introductionp. 149
Localizationp. 151
Percolationp. 151
The Anderson Transition and the Mobility Edgep. 151
Variable Range Hoppingp. 154
Minimum Metallic Conductivityp. 154
Scaling Theory and Quantum Interferencep. 155
The Gang of Fourp. 155
Experiments on Weak Localizationp. 157
Quantum Interferencep. 158
Negative Magnetoresistancep. 159
Single Rings and Non-local Transportp. 160
Spin--orbit Coupling, Magnetic Impurities, etc.p. 163
Universal Conductance Fluctuationsp. 163
Ballistic Transportp. 163
Interaction Effectsp. 164
The In T Correctionp. 164
Wigner Crystallizationp. 164
The Quantum Hall Effectp. 165
Generalp. 165
The Quantum Hall Effect Measurementsp. 168
The Semiclassical Theoryp. 170
The Fractional Quantum Hall Effectp. 172
Exercisesp. 175
Referencesp. 178
Electronic States and Optical Properties of Quantum Wellsp. 180
Introductionp. 180
The Envelope Function Schemep. 183
The Parabolic Band Modelp. 187
Effects of Band Mixingp. 192
Light Particle Band Non-parabolicityp. 192
Valence Band Non-parabolicityp. 193
Multiple Well Effectsp. 194
Effects of the Coulomb Interactionp. 197
Excitons in Bulk Semiconductorsp. 197
Excitons in Quantum Wellsp. 198
Effects of Applied Biasp. 201
Optical Absorption in a Quantum Wellp. 205
Optical Characterizationp. 209
Measurement of Absorptionp. 209
Features of Optical Spectrap. 211
Band Non-parabolicityp. 211
Valence Band Mixingp. 212
Interwell Couplingp. 214
Electric Fieldp. 214
Quantum-well Solar Cellsp. 215
Photoconversionp. 215
Basic Principlesp. 217
Photocurrentp. 217
Recombination Currentp. 221
Carrier Escapep. 221
Concluding Remarksp. 222
Exercisesp. 222
Referencesp. 225
Non-Linear Optics in Low-dimensional Semiconductorsp. 227
Introductionp. 227
Non-dissipative NLO Processesp. 229
Dissipative NLO Effectsp. 231
Potential Applications of NLOp. 232
Serial Channel Applicationsp. 232
Multi-channel Applications: Optical Computingp. 233
Excitonic Optical Saturation in MQWsp. 234
Excitonic Absorption at Low Intensitiesp. 234
Saturation of Excitonic Peaks at High Intensitiesp. 237
The Quantum Confined Stark Effectp. 239
Doping Superlattices ('n-i-p-i' Crystals)p. 242
Hetero--n-i-p-i Structuresp. 246
Band Filling Effects in Hetero--n-i-p-isp. 247
The QCSE in Hetero--n-i-p-isp. 249
Concluding Remarksp. 254
Exercisesp. 255
Referencesp. 257
Semiconductor Lasersp. 260
Introductionp. 260
Basic Laser Theoryp. 262
Laser Thresholdp. 265
Threshold Current Densityp. 267
Power Outputp. 270
Fundamental Gain Calculationsp. 272
Electronic Band Structure and Densities of Statesp. 272
Carrier Density and Inversionp. 274
Gain Expressionp. 276
Optical Gain in 2D and 3D Active Regionsp. 277
Strained Layersp. 280
Optical Interband Matrix Elementp. 284
Some other Laser Geometriesp. 286
Exercisesp. 292
Referencesp. 294
Mesoscopic Devicesp. 296
Introductionp. 296
Quantum Interference Transistorsp. 297
Quantum Interference and Negative Magnetoresistancep. 297
The Aharanov--Bohm Effectp. 303
Universal Conductance Fluctuationsp. 306
Quantum Interference Transistorsp. 309
The Gated Ring Interferometerp. 310
The Stub Tunerp. 311
Problems with Quantum Interference Transistorsp. 311
Ballistic Electron Devicesp. 314
Electron Transmission and the Landauer--Buttiker Formulap. 315
Quantized Conductance in Ballistic Point Contactsp. 316
Multi-terminal Devicesp. 318
The Negative Bend Resistancep. 318
Quenching of the Hall Effectp. 319
Possible Applications of Ballistic Electron Devicesp. 320
Boundary Scattering in Ballistic Structuresp. 323
Quantum Dot Resonant Tunnelling Devicesp. 325
Resonant Tunnelling through Quantum Wellsp. 326
Resonant Tunnelling through Quantum Dotsp. 328
Gated Resonant Tunnelling through Quantum Dotsp. 329
Coulomb Blockade and Single-electron Transistorsp. 331
Coulomb Blockade in the Current-biassed Single Junctionp. 332
Coulomb Blockade in Double Junctionsp. 334
Necessary Conditions for Efficient Coulomb Blockadep. 335
Single-electron Transistorsp. 335
Co-tunnelling and Multiple Tunnel Junctionsp. 339
Possible Applications of Single-electron Transistorsp. 340
The Future of Mesoscopic Devicesp. 342
Exercisesp. 343
Referencesp. 345
High-speed Heterostructure Devicesp. 348
Introductionp. 348
Field-effect Transistorsp. 349
The Si MOSFETp. 349
GaAs/AlGaAs High-electron-mobility Transistorp. 355
InGaAs HEMTsp. 358
Delta-doped FETsp. 361
Vertical Transport Devicesp. 363
Unipolar Diodesp. 364
Hot-electron Devicesp. 365
Resonant Tunnelling Structuresp. 367
Superlattice Devicesp. 370
Heterojunction Bipolar Transistorsp. 372
Conclusionsp. 375
Exercisesp. 375
Referencesp. 377
Solutions to Selected Exercisesp. 379
Indexp. 387
Table of Contents provided by Syndetics. All Rights Reserved.

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